Human Reproduction Update Advance Access originally published online on May 25, 2009
Human Reproduction Update 2009 15(6):667-681; doi:10.1093/humupd/dmp022
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Hormone therapy and cognitive function
Neuropsychiatric Institute, MC 913, University of Illinois at Chicago, 912 South Wood Street, Chicago, IL 60612, USA
1 Correspondence address. E-mail: pmaki{at}psych.uic.edu
BACKGROUND: Clinical trials yield discrepant information about the impact of hormone therapy on verbal memory and executive function. This issue is clinically relevant because declines in verbal memory are the earliest predictor of Alzheimer's disease and declines in executive function are central to some theories of normal, age-related changes in cognition.
METHODS: We conducted a systematic review of randomized clinical trials of hormone therapy (i.e. oral, transdermal, i.m.) and verbal memory, distinguishing studies in younger (i.e. 
65 years of age; n = 9) versus older (i.e. >65 years; n = 7) women and studies involving estrogen alone versus estrogen plus progestogen. Out of 32 placebo-controlled trials, 17 were included (13 had no verbal memory measures and 2 involved cholinergic manipulations). We also provide a narrative review of 25 studies of executive function (two trials), since there are insufficient clinical trial data for systematic review.
RESULTS: There is some evidence for a beneficial effect of estrogen alone on verbal memory in younger naturally post-menopausal women and more consistent evidence from small-n studies of surgically post-menopausal women. There is stronger evidence of a detrimental effect of conjugated equine estrogen plus medroxyprogesterone acetate on verbal memory in younger and older post-menopausal women. Observational studies and pharmacological models of menopause provide initial evidence of improvements in executive function with hormone therapy.
CONCLUSIONS: Future studies should include measures of executive function and should address pressing clinical questions; including what formulation of combination hormone therapy is cognitively neutral/beneficial, yet effective in treating hot flashes in the early post-menopause.
Key words: menopause / hormone therapy / cognition / estrogen / memory
Received on February 12, 2009; revised March 25, 2009; accepted on April 29, 2009